June 1, 2024: I started out thinking I was going to write about mining, the mining law of 1872, and eventually touch on South32. Well, hehe, I bit off more than I could chew. Consequently, this blog is more of a scattershot touching on various topics that will—hopefully--intersect with the subject of mining.
During my research, I kept trying to ignore the broader context that kept surfacing: Everyone on the planet who orders “stuff” online, or gets in a vehicle to get somewhere to purchase essentials or fluff—I’ll let you fill in the blanks as to what you can’t live without and what constitutes crap that you feel compelled to buy. All of it is made up of other “stuff” grown on -- or scratched or pumped out of--the earth, then formulated-processed and fashioned into the products we purchase with little or no thought to the incredible supply chain that delivers it to our doorsteps, grocery carts, and gas tanks.
I am not even close to being self-sustaining. My lifestyle is entirely dependent on this consumer universe that we have unwittingly been corralled into. My food, water, my ability to travel from point A to point B, to communicate with the outside world, indeed, my ability to make a living and practice a healthy lifestyle are all dependent on many external systems that are beyond my control.
We are caught between an outdated mining law, corporate interests, and a county, state, and federal bureaucracy that is being pulled in different directions. Our interests in maintaining clean water, air, and a natural habitat are bumping up against FAST 41, economic influence, politics, the “critical mineral supply chain”, and the economic windfall marketed by South32: jobs, tax revenues, and a boost to the local, county and state economies. This is a David and Goliath struggle.
And now for a bit of background on mining...
I knew the General Mining Act of 1872 was still on the books but didn't know much about when mining began so I decided to take a closer look. This is my attempt to describe mining as a consequence of the historical, social, economic, political, and scientific forces that have led to our dependence on hard rock minerals, and oil.
Important note: New archaeological discoveries continue to be made. Advances in carbon dating, CT scanning, ground penetrating radar, LIDAR, and sodium phosphate dating continue to expand our knowledge. Read more
Also, the historical classification of "Ages" should not be interpreted to mean that, for instance, the Copper Age abruptly stopped with the introduction of the Bronze Age, or that the Bronze Age abruptly transitioned to the Iron Age--compartmentalizing time-periods is an artificial construct. This also applies to early man's transition from hunting-gathering to farming. Migrations and the pace of change were varied and influenced by various factors.
Tool-making
"We", hominids and pre-hominids, have been scratching the earth for a very long time. We began by fashioning rocks into tools. For example, Acheulean hand axes and other large cutting tools date back to ~ 1.76 million years ago. Oldowan toolkits, hammerstones, stone cores, and stone flakes, date back to ~ 2.6 million years ago. Lomekwi 3 site in Kenya suggests that tool use may even date back to 3.3 million years.
Fire
When and where we learned how to control fire remains a subject of debate. Apparently, no species outside the hominid line intentionally makes a fire. The period between when we learned to control fire and when we discovered how to extract metal from ore took hundreds of thousands of years. It was a pivotal period that enabled cooking, protection, migration, social developments, and eventually increased our mastery over materials. One of the oldest examples of early man’s ability to control fire was found in Israel's Qesem Cave dating back 300,000 to 400,000 years. Read more
Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution
The transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer-controllers-of-fire to early Fertile Crescent farmers began around 10,000 BCE. This transition took place in East Asia, Mesoamerica, and the Andes at different times. Changes in climate at the end of the Ice Age increased populations, and the development of social structures likely played a role--all big steps taken over hundreds of thousands of years.
/Fire and Copper
Beginning around 8,000 BCE, in Anatolia (Turkey), Iran, and the Indus Valley region of Pakistan and India, we discovered that copper, in its native form, could be cold-hammered into useful shapes. Then around 5000 BCE fire was used to extract copper from sulfide ores became the first metal cast and shaped in a mold (c. 4000 BC.).
/Bronze
Then sometime around 3300 BCE, we discovered that combining copper with tin produced a stronger and more durable alloy called bronze. Dubbed the "Bronze Age", it led to significant technological advancements and increased social complexity. Bronze replaced copper and led to advances in agriculture, trade, and warfare.
/Iron
Then around 1200 BCE, we learned how to extract and work with iron. Smelting iron required higher temperatures and more sophisticated techniques than copper and bronze smelting. It was also more abundant and versatile than copper and tin. It became a valuable resource for infrastructure and tools, and here it is again, warfare.
/Precious Metals
When and where gold was first discovered remains a mystery. Its perceived beauty, rarity, and durability created a psychological attraction that continues to be shared across many cultures. Gold artifacts in ancient Egyptian tombs date back to 3100 BCE. In ancient Egypt, gold represented divine power, eternity, and the Pharaoh's connection to gods. During the reign of Seti I (1320 BCE), a treasure map known as the "Carte des mines d'or" pictured gold mines, miners' quarters, and a road leading to the mines.
A multifaceted practice that combined elements of chemistry, philosophy, religion, and mysticism. Among its goals: the transmutation of metals into gold and silver, common crystals into precious stones and diamonds, healing all forms of illness, prolonging the life of any person who consumed a small part of the philosopher's stone diluted in wine, creating perpetually burning lamps, reviving dead plants, creating malleable glass, discovering a universal solvent, and last but not least, creation of a clone or homunculus.
Alchemists used a variety of earth materials in their experiments and practices, many acquired through mining and extraction that began in Ancient Egypt, Greece, China, the Roman Empire (Central Europe, Spain), India, and South and Central America.
In ancient times (~3000 BC TO 500 AD), mining was often done by slaves or forced labor. In medieval and Renaissance Europe, mining was often done by peasants or specialized miners. Alchemists might have also been involved in the search for specific materials.
Metals: Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, and mercury. It was believed that these metals could be transmuted into one another.
Minerals and Salts: Sulfur, salt, and mercury were considered the "tria prima" or three primes of alchemy. These substances were believed to be the fundamental building blocks of all matter. Alchemists also used various other minerals like antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and zinc in their experiments.
Acids: Alchemists discovered and used various mineral acids like sulfuric acid (vitriol), hydrochloric acid (spirit of salt), and nitric acid (aqua fortis). These acids were used as solvents, reagents, and catalysts in alchemical processes.
Other substances: Alum, borax, lime, and various salts. They also used various natural substances like gemstones, clay, and sand in their practices.
Revolutions
Beginning in the 16th Century, the Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for the technological advancements that fueled the 18th and 19th Century Industrial Revolution. This period saw the birth of the scientific method and experimentation, thermodynamics, chemistry, metallurgy, and inventions.
Innovation upon innovation followed, transforming 18th Century England into the cradle of the Industrial Revolution spreading rapidly to other parts of the world in the 19th Century.
Warfare - Science & Exploration – Everyday Life – Art & Architecture
We have always been pretty good at killing one another and dedicated to finding better ways of getting the job done. Metallurgy, chemistry. and physics helped speed things along: giving us canon, muskets, armor, swords/rapiers/daggers, and other “melee” (close combat) weapons.
On the science and exploration front came the invention of the telescope (brass and bronze) tubes, the Astrolab (brass and bronze), the compass with its magnetic needle, the thermometer and barometer (mercury), the microscope (brass and copper),
Gutenberg's printing press used type made from a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony – all materials that had to be mined. Metal movable type revolutionized the production of book publishing and the spread of knowledge. It also made possible one of the first printed books on metallurgy “De la Pirotechnia” first
published in Venice in 1540.
Clocks and Watch gears and springs, eyeglass frames, locks, and keys, all made of metal.
Tools ranging from hammers and saws to wrenches and pliers and metal pumps were used for various purposes, including draining mines and supplying water. Metal was used in water wheels harnessing water power for mills and other industrial applications.
Artists created statues and sculptures using bronze. Artisans used gold, silver, copper, and gems to fashion jewelry. Architects and builders adorned their buildings with railings, gates, and doorknobs using various metals.
I have always admired humankind's artistry, ingenuity, and resourcefulness. However, seldom do we consider what it took to find, excavate, process, and fashion the metals that helped catapult us from hunter-gatherers to 21st-Century consumers.
I am stopping here because I’ve run out of time. I have purposely omitted whaling, coal mining, and the oil industry--next time.
A quick side-note: “One of the world’s biggest cities may be just months away from running out of water" -- what if we were to experience a water crisis, what then? Your comments, suggestions, and observations are always welcome.
Comments